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Therefore it is imperative that adults including parents, teachers, and physicians are knowledgeable about and sensitive to individual differences in physical development and their own implicit biases. All independent variables, strata, sampling weights, and the outcome variable were used as predictors in the imputation process (Allison, 2000). One important step is to ensure high-quality puberty education for all youth early in life. Caspi A., Moffitt T. Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change: The sample case of girls at puberty. An earlier Add Health study found that both early and late timing predicted depressed mood during early adolescence but effects dissipated over time from adolescence to young adulthood (Natsuaki et al., 2009). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development? Results indicated that, overall, earlier pubertal timing (i.e., maturational timing and peer-relative timing) put both girls and boys at risk during adolescence, while later timing was protective. Risk Factors Affecting Puberty: Environment, Obesity, and - Springer Boys who reported looking older than their peers (i.e., early peer-relative timing) also reported less screen time. The considerable progress in understanding the mechanisms which control puberty over the last 10 years has been a success story for basic research in neuroendocrinology, but has also been translated into clinical practice to allow a better understanding of the mechanisms of disordered pubertal development and, in some cases, to enable diagnostic genetic testing and counselling. In: Lerner R.M., Foch T.T., editors. For boys, earlier maturational timing was associated with significantly higher antisocial behavior, more sex partners, more drug use, less sleep, and higher BMI; later timing was associated with fewer antisocial behaviors and less drug use, but higher depressive symptoms (Panel 1b). sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Malnutrition, as seen in anorexic patients, and chronic diseases with malabsorption or diseases with systemic effects result in a delayed onset of puberty. However, the majority of psychology studies in the past few decades suggest that early maturation in boys is a primary risk for internalizing symptoms, including depression and anxiety, and externalizing symptoms such as attention deficit disorder, conduct disorder, aggression, delinquency, and risk-taking behavior (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Huddleston & Ge, 2003; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). There is also some evidence that late timing is associated with depressive symptoms in boys (Conley & Rudolph, 2009)(Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1998) or that both very early and very late (i.e., off-time) puberty are associated with worse mental health (Weichold, Silbereisen, & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2003). What causes normal puberty, precocious puberty, & delayed - NICHD Trajectories of depressed mood from early adolescence to young adulthood: The effects of pubertal timing and adolescent dating. Missing values on covariates were assigned using chained multiple imputation methods. One study that examined nonlinear effects of pubertal timing on depressive symptoms between ages of 12 and 23 years in Add Health, found that both early and late maturing girls (and boys) were at risk of experiencing elevated depressive symptoms during early adolescence (Natsuaki, Biehl, & Ge, 2009). Environmental Factors and Puberty Timing: Expert Panel Research Needs A recent study found that pubertal maturation, controlling for age, was associated with increases in attention skills in both boys and girls (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019). For instance, research could explore the interaction between objective pubertal markers (e.g., Tanner stage, hormone levels) and peer-relative pubertal timing. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Sexual risk-taking was conceptualized as the total number of sexual partners. Sample items include: felt blue; bothered by things that don't usually bother you; did not enjoy life (0=never; 1=sometimes; 2=a lot of the time; 3=most/all of the time). Hayford S.R. We defined early peer-relative timing as physical development older than most, and late as younger than most. StataCorp . For instance, there could be an initial advantage for early maturing boys, particularly in their psychosocial well-being, yet other health risks could accumulate over time if these youth also experience more stress in their social relationships or suffer from long-term consequences of affiliating with older peers. Sasha Howard | 60 The prevalence of CHD in the Puberty Cohort is comparable with the prevalence worldwide, 61, 62 and participation in the Puberty Cohort was found to be independent of pubertal timing in an earlier study. There is substantial evidence that both physical and psychosocial stress affect the onset of puberty. Influences on the onset and tempo of puberty in human beings - PubMed Recent findings Pubertal timing and adult obesity and cardiometabolic risk in women and men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Self-reported age at menarche served as a proxy for maturational timing for girls. Ahlgren, Melbye, Wohlfahrt, & Sorensen, 2004, Tamakoshi, Yatsuya, Tamakoshi, & Group, 2011, Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1998, Weichold, Silbereisen, & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2003, Kuh, Ben-Shlomo, Lynch, Hallqvist, & Power, 2003, Rudolph, Troop-Gordon, Lambert, & Natsuaki, 2014, Kaplowitz, Slora, Wasserman, Pedlow, & Herman-Giddens, 2001, James-Todd, Tehranifar, Rich-Edwards, Titievsky, & Terry, 2010, Perreira, Deeb-Sossa, Harris, & Bollen, 2005, Supplemental Tables A1-A2 (girls) and B1-B2 (boys), Deardorff, Hoyt, Carter, & Shirtcliff, 2019, Goddings, Burnett Heyes, Bird, Viner, & Blakemore, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100549. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. For instance, the . These changes may signal to adults or friends that youth are now emerging adults, despite being the same chronological age as their peers and classmates (who have more child-like appearances). Notes. Of particular note is a recent study that found age at menarche predicted higher BMI in a sample of adult women from the UK Biobank Study, after adjusting for childhood BMI and genetic risks for early puberty (Gill et al., 2018). For both sexes, early/late maturational timing was defined as one standard deviation below/above the mean. Early puberty, in particular, is associated with adverse health outcomes, including breast and endometrial cancer, obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, short stature and even increased mortality. Standardized regression coefficients and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) are presented in Fig. 57 Some environmental factors thought to affect pubertal timing include chronic psychological stress, father absence, and parental conflict. Pubertal Timing Effects - Child Psychology - Doctor Steve Abel Mendle J., Turkheimer E., Emery R.E. Taga K.A., Markey C.N., Friedman H.S. This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01- HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Also the persons nutrition and physic plays an important role. Body mass index and timing of pubertal initiation in boys. Insights on adolescence from a life course perspective. 10 E. Park Avenue | Kiel, WI 53042; 1-800-877-8913; News . All baseline covariates were measured at Wave I. Demographic data included age in years and race/ethnicity (coded as Non-Hispanic White, Black/African American, Hispanic/Latino, Asian, or other). Overall, most research supporting the link between pubertal timing and health has been examined in small, short-term studies, limiting our knowledge about the enduring effects of early or off-time maturation. Finally, boys who reported looking older than most peers (earlier peer-relative timing) had fewer antisocial behaviors and less screen time; BMI was no longer statistically significant (Panel 3d). Two self-reported measures of pubertal timing were assessed: intra-individual development (i.e., maturational timing) and inter-individual development (i.e., peer-relative pubertal timing). Factors affecting onset of puberty - PubMed Nevertheless, these results can hardly be extrapolated to the 21st century given the secular trends in puberty timing, changes in the numerous factors known to affect pubertal timing (13, 14, 17), and changes in education . Jacobsen B., Oda K., Knutsen S., Fraser G. Age at menarche, total mortality and mortality from ischaemic heart disease and stroke: The Adventist Health Study, 1976-88. 2, Fig. Puberty experiences of low-income girls in the United States: A systematic review of qualitative literature from 2000 to 2014. Standardized regression coefficients and 95% CIs for young adult health outcomes controlling for baseline sociodemographic characteristics. Of the female respondents, 89.63% reported their age at menarche at Wave I; if a respondent had not had menarche or did not report it at Wave I, we used the next available report at Wave II (5.38%) or Wave III (3.42%). Lee Y., Styne D. Influences on the onset and tempo of puberty in human beings and implications for adolescent psychological development. Independent variables (i.e., pubertal timing measures), dependent variables (i.e., psychosocial well-being, health behaviors, physical health in adolescence and adulthood), and baseline covariates are described in detail below. In: Hayward C., editor. Adolescents' expectations for the future predict health behaviors in early adulthood. Later menarche was still associated with fewer sex partners, more sleep hours, better self-reported health, and lower BMI in young adulthood. Early age at menarche associated with cardiovascular disease and mortality. Historically, in the adolescent development literature, there was a prevailing view that early maturation had psychosocial benefits for boys, such as higher self-esteem (Blyth, 1981, Simmons, Blyth, Van Cleave, & Bush, 1979)and positive body image (Crockett & Petersen, 1987), while late maturation was associated with greater feelings of inadequacy and social rejection (Clausen, 1975). Educators, clinicians, and parents could help normalize the pubertal process and underscore (and appreciate) individual differences in body shape, which become more apparent during this developmental period. Focusing your concept around five key considerations ensures successful design and execution. Coefficients are statistically significant at p<.05 where CIs do not cross the 0 line. These changes affect body size, shape, and composition and involve the maturation of the reproductive organs and the acquisition of secondary sex characteristics. Received 2019 Oct 15; Revised 2020 Jan 19; Accepted 2020 Jan 30. Approximately 40% of peak bone mass is acquired between Tanner stages II and V and the rate of acquisition is particularly high between stage III and stage IV. 4 Harris K. 2013. Therefore we ran two sets of longitudinal models. Cognitive social psychology: The princeton symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition. Overall, there was more evidence for the early timing hypothesis than the off-time hypothesis for the effects of boys pubertal timing on adolescent outcomes, with the exception of depressive symptoms (i.e., later maturational timing was associated with more depressive symptoms). Understanding cumulative vulnerability to this health behavior represents an important area of future research as technology continues to advance and change the ways in which both youth and adults interact with screens. Aligned with the early timing hypothesis, early pubertal timing was largely associated with increased risk for poor psychosocial, behavioral, and physical health during adolescence for both girls and boys, while later timing was generally protective. For instance, early maturing youth may experience initial challenges, yet adverse effects could dissipate over time as other youth catch up in physical development. This aligns with previous research that adolescence often contains the developmental roots of lifetime psychopathology and health habits (Harris, 2010). Nutritional changes clearly have a key role, as shown by the positive correlation between age at puberty onset and childhood body size, particularly in girls. Frontiers | Timing of puberty and school performance: A population Self-reported good health was assessed by the same, single question in Waves I and IV: In general, how is your health? (0=poor; 1=fair; 2=good; 3=very good; 4=excellent). While early-onset puberty may be a stressful experience, it does not generate uniform reactions across girls and boys and may depend on social and cultural factors (Deardorff, Hoyt, Carter, & Shirtcliff, 2019; Morales-Chicas & Graham, 2015; Seaton & Carter, 2017; White, Deardorff, & Gonzales, 2012; White, Deardorff, Liu, & Gonzales, 2013(White et al., 2012)(White et al., 2013)). Rudolph K.D., Troop-Gordon W., Lambert S.F., Natsuaki M.N. Chaku N., Hoyt L.T. Despite secular trends in the declining age of pubertal onset shifting into primary schools for girls (e.g., White and Asian girls usually start to show secondary sex characteristics by ages 9 or 10; and Black and Hispanic girls typically start developing a year or two earlier) (Lee & Styne, 2013; Parent et al., 2003), puberty education typically does not occur until middle or high school (often in combination with sexual education), if it is taught at all (Brener et al., 2012; Herbert et al., 2017). The following are the Supplementary data to this article: National Library of Medicine Variation in the timing of puberty: how genetics may provide insights. Early and late peer-relative timing was assessed by a self-report of looking much older or much younger than one's peers. Peer-relative pubertal timing was assessed by the question, How advanced is your physical development compared to other boys/girls your age? Responses could range from I look younger than most (1) to I look older than most (5). Allison P.D. Kuh D., Ben-Shlomo Y., Lynch J., Hallqvist J., Power C. Life course epidemiology. The full version was administered at Wave I; a 10-item abbreviated version was administered at Wave IV. Jordan S.J., Webb P.M., Green A.C. Puberty is a crucial time in bone mineral mass development. Detrimental psychological outcomes associated with early pubertal timing in adolescent girls. Pubertal Timing | SpringerLink Morales-Chicas J., Graham S. Pubertal timing of latinas and school connectedness during the transition to middle school. The panel concluded that available experimental animal and human data . We also expand on these findings in several important ways. Early age at menarche associated with increased all-cause mortality. The current study explored the broadest known set of adolescent and young adult health outcomes related to pubertal timing in both girls and boys and examined both intra-individual development (i.e., maturational timing) and inter-individual development (i.e. Physical development is influenced by a broad spectrum of environmental, social, and cultural factors, and both experience and heredity affect the timing of puberty. Seaton E.K., Carter R. Pubertal timing, racial identity, neighborhood, and school context among black adolescent females. By examining a wide range of outcomes, we observed that links between maturational timing and health extend to behavioral and physical health markers including risky health behaviors, sleep, self-reported health, and BMI. Mendle J., Ryan R., McKone K. Age at menarche, depression, and antisocial behavior in adulthood. Secular trends towards earlier puberty, possibly caused by new environmental triggers, provide a basis for periodic evaluation of the influence and interaction of genetic and environmental effects on pubertal timing. To summarize advances in the genetics underlying variation in normal pubertal timing, precocious puberty, and delayed puberty, and to discuss mechanisms by which genes may regulate pubertal timing. Participants' responses were summed to form the depressive symptoms scale (ranging from 0 30) at Waves I (=.80) and IV (=.84). GUID:AA699C93-EA3D-49B9-B3DC-C5E48F63266A, GUID:9B91520C-6FFE-469E-AE4F-67F0AF0AED80, Puberty, Gender differences, Internalizing behaviors, Externalizing behaviors, BMI, Add health. aApplied Developmental Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA, bSociology & Computational Social Science Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. Because of these important ramifications, modifiable factors that influence the timing of puberty are of endocrinological interest from a public health perspective. 2; Panel 2a) was associated with more depressive symptoms, less sleep, worse self-reported health, and higher BMI. Between the ages of 9 and 14, boys typically begin to experience: Genital development (growth of their testicles and scrotum). For instance, more mature youth (particularly youth of color) may be perceived by others as more aggressive or violent, and more likely to have academic and social problems than their same-age peers (Carter et al., 2017; Deardorff et al., 2019). Yermachenko A., Dvornyk V. Nongenetic determinants of age at menarche: A systematic review. To measure screen time, we summed the number of hours per week spent in three behaviors in Wave I: TV hours, video hours, and screen games (Gordon-Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000) and three behaviors in Wave IV: TV hours, internet hours, and screen games. Analysis of this holistic set of outcomes with sex differences in mind allows for more careful evidence-based recommendations for adolescent health promotion. Simmons R.G., Blyth D.A., Van Cleave E.F., Bush D.M. Puberty is marked by substantial increases and emerging sex differences in psychological disorders and risky behaviors. However, precisely what ultimately starts puberty remains enigmatic. What is in our environment that effects puberty? - PubMed Huddleston J., Ge X. Prentice P., Viner R. Pubertal timing and adult obesity and cardiometabolic risk in women and men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In the final set of longitudinal models examining perceived pubertal timing relative to peers on young adult health outcomes for girls (controlling for baseline health), early peer-relative timing was only significantly associated with more sex partners; later peer-relative timing was associated with higher depressive symptoms, fewer sex partners and lower BMI (Panel 3c). However, ghrelin, neuropeptide Y and many other signalling pathways are likely to be important in the nutritional control of pubertal timing. For instance, early maturational timing was associated with higher young adult BMI (girls: =0.139, p<.01; boys: =0.107, p<.01), but later timing for boys was associated with both risky (e.g., more screen time; =0.125, p<.05) and health promoting (e.g., more sleep; = .296, p<.01) behaviors. Given that pubertal timing is associated with adolescent health outcomes, longitudinal analyses could obfuscate effects over time such that it would be hard to detect significant differences in adult outcomes when adolescent health is controlled for. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset of pubertal maturation, and a substantial body of research indicates that variations in pubertal timing have psychological, social, and health consequences (e.g., Mendle et al. These four variables were dichotomized as whether a participant used cigarettes, marijuana, or illicit drugs in the past 30 days or binge drank 35 days or more in the past 12 months (approximately once per month;1=yes; 0=no). Height and weight, measured by trained interviewers at Wave IV, were used to calculate adult BMI (i.e., the ratio of weight in kilograms over height in meters squared). Therefore, without baseline data from childhood, it is unclear whether early puberty is a risk factor for adult obesity, or a risk marker of childhood obesity (e.g., elevated childhood BMI contributes to an earlier age of menarche, which in turn leads to a higher adult BMI). Puberty is an individual process that varies within individuals, cultures, sex, ethnicity, age, etc. The current analysis demonstrated that early pubertal timing was linked to long-term health outcomes via poor psychological functioning, risky behaviors, and higher BMI during adolescence (i.e., cumulative vulnerability over time), particularly for girls. Growth patterns and the risk of breast cancer in women. Top 4 Factors That Are Shaping Generation Z | Inc.com Wave IV included three additional items: deliberately writing a bad check, using others' debit card without permission, and buying or selling stolen property. Growing up fast: Stress exposure and subjective weathering in emerging adulthood. However, developing later (i.e., reporting looking younger than most of one's peers) was associated with both positive and negative health outcomes in young adulthood fewer sex partners and lower BMI, but more depressive symptoms. Hyper-Connected World. Timing of puberty: why is it changing and why does it matter? Although the roots of many mental and physical health disorders begin in adolescence, surprisingly few studies have examined the longevity of pubertal timing effects. 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Normal puberty is the body's natural process of sexual maturation. Selection weights were . The risks of earlier puberty - American Psychological Association (APA) The off-time hypothesis (Caspi & Moffitt, 1991; Petersen & Taylor, 1980) suggests that girls who develop either early or late might be at risk for poor health outcomes, yet, this is not often tested given that age of menarche is typically measured as a continuous, linear variable (assuming early timing is risky and later timing is protective) or on-time and late development are combined in analyses (and compared to early timing). Crockett L.J., Petersen A.C. Pubertal status and psychosocial development: Findings from the Early Adolescence Study. Procedures for data access and analysis were implemented as approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst (with an IAA agreement at Fordham University), and in agreement with the sensitive data security plan approved by Add Health data managers. Therefore, we may observe links between early or off-time maturation in adulthood that were not detectable in adolescence. Peer group similarity in perceptions of pubertal timing. In Stage 2, physical changes begin. Five Factors that Impact your Industrial Project Timeline - HUI Mfg James-Todd T., Tehranifar P., Rich-Edwards J., Titievsky L., Terry M.B.